Pakistan has recently placed renewed emphasis on the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and other pre-Islamic heritage sites, a shift that has coincided with growing tensions with India over the Indus Waters Treaty.
The renewed focus became particularly visible after fresh excavations began at Mohenjo-daro in June 2025. The archaeological site, one of the most important urban centres of the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation, had seen little excavation activity since the work carried out by archaeologist George Dales in 1965.
The development came months after India suspended aspects of the 1960 Indus Waters Treaty following the Pahalgam terror attack, in which 28 civilians were killed. New Delhi argued that cross-border terrorism and changing circumstances required a reassessment of the agreement. Prime Minister Narendra Modi stated that “blood and water cannot flow together.”
Since then, Pakistani leaders have increasingly linked the Indus River dispute with questions of history and civilisational identity. Among the most prominent voices has been Bilawal Bhutto Zardari, who argued that Pakistan is the primary inheritor and custodian of the Indus civilisation and therefore has a special historical connection to the river.
Pakistan has also expanded efforts to highlight archaeological and cultural sites predating the country's Islamic history. Places such as Taxila, ancient Takshashila, have been promoted through tourism campaigns, museums and heritage initiatives. The region is known for its connections to Vedic, Buddhist, Mauryan, Indo-Greek and Kushan traditions.
Similarly, the heritage of Gandhara and the Neolithic settlement of Mehrgarh have increasingly been incorporated into official narratives presenting Pakistan as the heir to a continuous civilisation stretching back thousands of years.
Earlier this year, Pakistani President Asif Ali Zardari described Pakistan as the crossroads of the Indus Valley, Mehrgarh and Gandhara civilisations. His comments prompted criticism from former Afghan President Hamid Karzai, who argued that Gandhara’s historical legacy extends beyond the borders of any single modern state.
The debate has also spread into public discourse. Commentators and public figures in Pakistan have increasingly argued that ownership of important Indus Valley sites and much of the river’s course gives Pakistan a unique claim to the Indus heritage.
Critics, however, argue that historical and archaeological claims do not determine modern water rights. They note that the Indus Waters Treaty is governed by international agreements and contemporary legal frameworks rather than ancient civilisations.
The archaeological record itself presents a more complex picture. While major Indus Valley sites such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are located in present-day Pakistan, a large number of known Harappan settlements have been discovered in India, particularly along the Ghaggar-Hakra river system, which many scholars associate with the ancient Sarasvati River. As a result, some Indian archaeologists and cultural institutions prefer the term “Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation” rather than “Indus Valley Civilisation.”
Supporters of this terminology argue that the civilisation extended across a vast region that now spans both India and Pakistan, making exclusive claims by either country difficult to sustain.
The broader debate reflects how archaeology, heritage and national identity are increasingly being drawn into contemporary geopolitical disputes. While references to Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and the Indus civilisation may strengthen political narratives and cultural claims, the legal and diplomatic questions surrounding the Indus Waters Treaty continue to depend on present-day agreements, water-sharing arrangements, environmental realities and negotiations between the two countries.
